grammar review

• Noun-Clause Starters
  "We use various words to start noun clauses. . . .
  
  "These words include the word that, which in its role as a noun clause starter is not arelative pronoun, for it serves no grammatical role in the clause; it just starts the clause. For example: The committee stated that it would follow the agent's policy. Here the noun clause serves the noun role of direct object of the transitive verb stated. But a careful look at the clause reveals that the word that does not serve any role within the clause, other than simply to get it going.
  
  "Other noun clause starters do serve grammatical roles within the clause. For example: We know who caused all the trouble. Here the noun clause starter is the relative pronoun who. Notice that inside the noun clause who serves as the grammatical subject of the verbcaused.
  
  "Additional words serve as noun clause starters. A relative adverb can get one going: Howhe won the election mystified the pundits. So can a relative pronoun acting as an adjective: We know which career she will pursue. In these two sentences, how is an adverb modifying the verb won, and which is a relative-pronoun-adjective modifying the noun career."
  (C. Edward Good, A Grammar Book for You and I--Oops, Me!. Capital Books, 2002)



• "I have run,
  I have crawled,
  I have scaled these city walls,
  These city walls
  Only to be with you,
  Only to be with you.
  But I still haven't found what I'm looking for."
  (written and performed by U2, "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For." The Joshua Tree, 1987)

Grammar review : Conjunctions

Parts of Speech
Chapter 8  - Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words.  In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connects two nouns and in the sentence  He will drive or fly,  the conjunction or connects two verbs.  In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction butconnects two groups of words.
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence.  The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways:
and is used to join or add words together in the sentence They ate and drank.
or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday.
but is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong.
so is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep.
Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class.  For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as:
    after                before                unless
    although          if                        until
    as                   since                   when
    because          than                    while
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together.  In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . .and arecorrelative conjunctions.  The most common correlative conjunctions are:
    both . . .and
    either . . . or
    neither . . . nor
    not only . . . but also

GIVING INVITATION

GIVING  INVITATION

1.Meaning

Giving invitation is an expression that is disclosed when there is someone who wants to ask other persons to come to a place or when there is someone who asks others to do something for him/her.

2.Expressions and Responses of Inviting

3.Dialogue Invitation

Arif  : Hi, Tika.

Tika  : Hi, Arif. What’s up friend?

Arif  : Hmmm, are you doing anything for next week?

Tika  : Nothing. Why?

Arif  : Hmm, like you know, next week we will have summer vacation to

Bali and I think that I need you to be my date. Would you mind to come along with me?

Tika  : Really? I’d love it so much.

Arif  : Well, I will pick you at 7 a.m next week at school.

Tika  : OK. Thanks Arif.

Arif  : You’re welcome. Bye Tika and see you next week.

Tika  : See you, too. Bye-bye.

USED TO

•The word used to refer to a definite time in the past.

•Used to is used for showing habit in the past time.

Examples:

I used to go to the movies a lot.

•Used to is used for regular actions or events in the past that no longer happen.

Examples:

I used to play badminton twice a week, but now I only play once a month.

Example in dialogue

Tika  : Do you play tennis?

Risky  : I used to play a lot, but I haven’t played for years.

Tika  : Do you enjoy playing?

Rizky  : Very much. But I never have time.

Tika  : Are you very good?

Rizky  : I used to be OK.

Tika  : Would you like a game?

Risky  : Of course.

Tika  : When can you get away?

Risky  : How about Friday, after work?

Tika  : That would suit me.

Risky  : Do you know where we can play?

Tika  : There are courts at our gym. I’ll reserve one.

Expressing certainty

Expressing certainty and uncertainty

---

Certainty and uncertainty
Certainty is the state of being completely confident or having no doubt about something. However, uncertainty is when nothing is ever decided or sure.
Expressing certainty
When you are sure that something will or will not happen in the future, use these expressions.
For example to the question:
"Will John pass the exam?"
you may respond as follows:

Yes,	I'm	absolutely sure quite sure certain positive	he will.
	definitely. certainly. of course.

or

No,	I'm	absolutely sure quite sure certain positive	he won't.
	definitely not. certainly not. of course not.

Expressing uncertainty
When you are not sure whether something or someone will or will not happen, use the following expressions.
For example, to the question:
"Will John follow a career in business?"
you may respond as follows:

Well,	it's possible, it's impossible, it might be, it might not be, it could happen,	I suppose,	but	I wouldn't like to say for certain. I'm not sure I doubt it. I have my own doubts. it's doubtful. It's highly / very unlikely.
	you never know of course, no one can know for certain. I can't tell you for sure.

Giving and Responding to Compaliment

GIVING COMPLAIMENT
Everyone likes to hear compliments. Compliments make people feel good about themselves, and we all need that at times. Hotel guests and staff are no exceptions. Guests may give hotel staff compliments for the quality of their service, for their English ability, for their appearance in an unique uniform, or for doing something a little extra for the guest.A hotel staff may give a guest a compliment about how they look in a newly purchased outfit, or for their patience when a problem arises, or for a beautiful new hair style after visiting a beauty parlor. Look at the expressions below that can be used when giving and responding to compliments.Expression Of Giving CompalimentGiving Complaiments—That’s a very nice …(dress).—Great job on the …(presentation).—You look very good in … (that new hair-do).—This dish is delicious, my compliments to the chef.—That … (tie) looks great on you.—Responses to compliments—How kind of you to say so.—Thank you.—I’m glad you like it.—It was nothing really. (an expression of modesty and humility)Learn the expressions used for giving compliments to others. Practice by saying them loudly.—Your performance on the stage is amazing.—How wonderful to listen to  your  great voice.—How mar vellous .—Great ! (You look great) / Great for  you.—Terrific ! (Hey, that’s terrific !)—Fantastic!—Smashing.—That’s really remarkable /well  done.—Now, learn the expressions  use for responding to compliments.—It’s very kind of you to say so.—Thank you.—I can say how pleased (delighted) I am.—I’m delighted  to hear  that.—Thank for your compliment.


Dialogue
Staff: What a beautiful dress, Mrs. Elliot.
Guest: Thanks, I’m glad you like it.
Staff: Your new hair-do looks absolutely gorgeous, Mrs. Simpson.
Guest: How kind of you to say so.
Guest: My compliments to the chef. This linguine is superb.
Staff: Thank you ma’am. I’ll be sure to let the chef know.
Guest: Your English is very good.
Staff: Thank you very much.
Staff: Excellent game Mr. Johnson. You really gave me a workout.
Guest: Thanks, I guess all those private lessons are finally paying off.
Guest: I really appreciate all the extra work you did on helping us solve that problem. It truly went above and beyond. My compliments to your work ethic.
Staff: Thank you sir, how kind of you to say so.

Used To

Rules for
Comma Usage

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If you have a fast connection to the Internet—a T1 line (available in most computer lab situations), cable modem, or DSL—click HERE for a more elaborate version of this page. (Not recommended for 28 or 56k phone-line connections.)

If your computer is equipped with PowerPoint, click on the PowerPoint icon to the right for a brief PowerPoint presentation on comma usage. Click HERE for help with Powerpoint.

Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or more things), including the last two. "He hit the ball, dropped the bat, and ran to first base." You may have learned that the comma before the "and" is unnecessary, which is fine if you're in control of things. However, there are situations in which, if you don't use this comma (especially when the list is complex or lengthy), these last two items in the list will try to glom together (like macaroni and cheese). Using a comma between all the items in a series, including the last two, avoids this problem. This last comma—the one between the word "and" and the preceding word—is often called the serial comma or the Oxford comma. In newspaper writing, incidentally, you will seldom find a serial comma, but that is not necessarily a sign that it should be omitted in academic prose.

Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect two independent clauses, as in "He hit the ball well, buthe ran toward third base."

Contending that the coordinating conjunction is adequate separation, some writers will leave out the comma in a sentence with short, balanced independent clauses (such as we see in the example just given). If there is ever any doubt, however, use the comma, as it is always correct in this situation.

One of the most frequent errors in comma usage is the placement of a comma after a coordinating conjunction. We cannot say that the comma will always come before the conjunction and never after, but it would be a rare event, indeed, that we need to follow a coordinating conjunction with a comma. When speaking, we do sometimes pause after the little conjunction, but there is seldom a good reason to put a comma there.

For additional information on coordinating conjunctions, clickHERE. See the note BELOW regarding the use of a comma between two independent clauses when the second independent clause begins with a parenthetical element or adverbial clause.

Use a comma to set off introductory elements, as in "Running toward third base, he suddenly realized how stupid he looked."

It is permissible to omit the comma after a brief introductory element if the omission does not result in confusion or hesitancy in reading. If there is ever any doubt, use the comma, as it is always correct. If you would like some additional guidelines on using a comma after introductory elements, click HERE.

Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements, as in "The Founders Bridge, which spans the Connecticut River, is falling down." By "parenthetical element," we mean a part of a sentence that can be removed without changing the essential meaning of that sentence. The parenthetical element is sometimes called "added information." This is the most difficult rule in punctuation because it is sometimes unclear what is "added" or "parenthetical" and what is essential to the meaning of a sentence.

Appositives are almost always treated as parenthetical elements.

• Calhoun's ambition, to become a goalie in professional soccer, is within his reach.
• Eleanor, his wife of thirty years, suddenly decided to open her own business.

Sometimes the appositive and the word it identifies are so closely related that the comma can be omitted, as in "His wife Eleanor suddenly decided to open her own business." We could argue that the name "Eleanor" is not essential to the meaning of the sentence (assuming he has only one wife), and that would suggest that we can put commas both before and after the name (and that would, indeed, be correct). But "his wife" and "Eleanor" are so close that we can regard the entire phrase as one unit and leave out the commas. With the phrase turned around, however, we have a more definite parenthetical element and the commas are necessary: "Eleanor, his wife, suddenly decided to open her own business." Consider, also, the difference between "College President Ira Rubenzahl voted to rescind the withdrawal policy" (in which we need the name "Ira Rubenzahl" or the sentence doesn't make sense) and "Ira Rubenzahl, the college president, voted to rescind the withdrawal policy" (in which the sentence makes sense without his title, the appositive, and we treat the appositive as a parenthetical element, with a pair of commas).

As pointed out above (Rule #3), an adverbial clause that begins a sentence is set off with a comma: Although Queasybreath had spent several years in Antarctica, he still bundled up warmly in the brisk autumns of Ohio. Because Tashonda had learned to study by herself, she was able to pass the entrance exam. When an adverbial clause comes later on in the sentence, however, the writer must determine if the clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence or not. A "because clause" can be particularly troublesome in this regard. In most sentences, a "because clause" is essential to the meaning of the sentence, and it will not be set off with a comma: The Okies had to leave their farms in the midwest because the drought conditions had ruined their farms. Sometimes, though, the "because clause" must be set off with a comma to avoid misreading: I knew that President Nixon would resign that morning, because my sister-in-law worked in the White House and she called me with the news. Without that comma, the sentence says that Nixon's resignation was the fault of my sister-in-law. Nixon did not resign because my sister-in-law worked in the White House, so we set off that clause to make the meaning clearly parenthetical.

When a parenthetical element — an interjection, adverbial modifier, or even an adverbial clause — follows a coordinating conjunction used to connect two independent clauses, we do not put a comma in front of the parenthetical element.

• The Red Sox were leading the league at the end of May, but of course, they always do well in the spring. [no comma after "but"]
• The Yankees didn't do so well in the early going, but frankly, everyone expects them to win the season. [no comma after "but"]
• The Tigers spent much of the season at the bottom of the league, and even though they picked up several promising rookies, they expect to be there again next year. [no comma after "and"]

(This last piece of advice relies on the authority of William Strunk's Elements of Style. Examples our own.)

When both a city's name and that city's state or country's name are mentioned together, the state or country's name is treated as a parenthetical element.

• We visited Hartford, Connecticut, last summer.
• Paris, France, is sometimes called "The City of Lights."

When the state becomes a possessive form, this rule is no longer followed:

• Hartford, Connecticut's investment in the insurance industry is well known.

Also, when the state or country's name becomes part of a compound structure, the second comma is dropped:

• Heublein, a Hartford, Connecticut-based company, is moving to another state.

An absolute phrase is always treated as a parenthetical element, as is an interjection. An addressed person's name is also always parenthetical. Be sure, however, that the name is that of someone actually being spoken to. A separate section on Vocatives, the various forms that a parenthetical element related to an addressed person's name can take, is also available.

• Their years of training now forgotten, the soldiers broke ranks.
• Yes, it is always a matter, of course, of preparation and attitude.
• I'm telling you, Juanita, I couldn't be more surprised. (I told Juanita I couldn't be more surprised. [no commas])

Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. You could think of this as "That tall, distinguished, good looking fellow" rule (as opposed to "the little old lady"). If you can put an and or a but between the adjectives, a comma will probably belong there. For instance, you could say, "He is a tall and distinguished fellow" or "I live in a very old and run-down house." So you would write, "He is a tall, distinguished man" and "I live in a very old, run-down house." But you would probably not say, "She is a little and old lady," or "I live in a little and purple house," so commas would not appear between little and old or between little and purple.

And what does a comma do, a comma does nothing but make easy a thing that if you like it enough is easy enough without the comma. A long complicated sentence should force itself upon you, make you know yourself knowing it and the comma, well at the most a comma is a poor period that lets you stop and take a breath but if you want to take a breath you ought to know yourself that you want to take a breath. It is not like stopping altogether has something to do with going on, but taking a breath well you are always taking a breath and why emphasize one breath rather than another breath. Anyway that is the way I felt about it and I felt that about it very very strongly. And so I almost never used a comma. The longer, the more complicated the sentence the greater the number of the same kinds of words I had following one after another, the more the very more I had of them the more I felt the passionate need of their taking care of themselves by themselves and not helping them, and thereby enfeebling them by putting in a comma. So that is the way I felt about punctuation in prose, in poetry it is a little different but more so … — Gertrude Stein from Lectures in America

Use a comma to set off quoted elements. Because we don't use quoted material all the time, even when writing, this is probably the most difficult rule to remember in comma usage. It is a good idea to find a page from an article that uses several quotations, photocopy that page, and keep it in front of you as a model when you're writing. Generally, use a comma to separate quoted material from the rest of the sentence that explains or introduces the quotation:

• Summing up this argument, Peter Coveney writes, "The purpose and strength of the romantic image of the child had been above all to establish a relation between childhood and adult consciousness."

If an attribution of a quoted element comes in the middle of the quotation, two commas will be required. But be careful not to create a comma splice in so doing.

• "The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many things."
• "I should like to buy an egg, please," she said timidly. "How do you sell them?"

Be careful not to use commas to set off quoted elements introduced by the word that or quoted elements that are embedded in a larger structure:

• Peter Coveney writes that "[t]he purpose and strength of . . ."
• We often say "Sorry" when we don't really mean it.

And, instead of a comma, use a colon to set off explanatory or introductory language from a quoted element that is either very formal or long (especially if it's longer than one sentence):

• Peter Coveney had this to say about the nineteenth-century's use of children
  in fiction: "The purpose and strength of . . . . "

Use commas to set off phrases that express contrast.

• Some say the world will end in ice, not fire.
• It was her money, not her charm or personality, that first attracted him.
• The puppies were cute, but very messy.

(Some writers will leave out the comma that sets off a contrasting phrase beginning with but.)

Use a comma to avoid confusion. This is often a matter of consistently applying rule #3.

• For most the year is already finished.
• For most, the year is already finished.
• Outside the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.
• Outside, the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches.

I have spent most of the day putting in a comma and the rest of the day taking it out. — Oscar Wilde

Grammar English's Famous Rule of Punctuation: Never use only one comma between a subject and its verb. "Believing completely and positively in oneself is essential for success." [Although readers might pause after the word "oneself," there is no reason to put a comma there.]

Typographical Reasons: Between a city and a state [Hartford, Connecticut], a date and the year [June 15, 1997], a name and a title when the title comes after the name [Bob Downey, Professor of English], in long numbers [5,456,783 and $14,682], etc. Although you will often see a comma between a name and suffix — Bob Downey, Jr., Richard Harrison, III — this comma is no longer regarded as necessary by most copy editors, and some individuals — such as Martin Luther King Jr. — never used a comma there at all.

Note that we use a comma or a set of commas to make the year parenthetical when the date of the month is included:

• July 4, 1776, is regarded as the birth date of American liberty.

Without the date itself, however, the comma disappears:

• July 1776 was one of the most eventful months in our history.

In international or military format, no commas are used:

• The Declaration of Independence was signed on 4 July 1776.

Use Commas With Caution

As you can see, there are many reasons for using commas, and we haven't listed them all. Yet the biggest problem that most students have with commas is their overuse. Some essays look as though the student loaded a shotgun with commas and blasted away. Remember, too, that a pause in reading is not always a reliable reason to use a comma. Try not to use a comma unless you can apply a specific rule from this page to do so.

Concentrating on the proper use of commas is not mere form for form's sake. Indeed, it causes writers to review their understanding of structure and to consider carefully how their sentences are crafted.

Try this experiment: Give your instructor five dollars for each comma you use in an essay. Your instructor will return five dollars for each comma used correctly. You should come out even. This technique for cutting down on unwanted commas has been heartily endorsed by every English instructor who has tried it.

Arguing

Arguing Is Pointles

It was lunchtime and the seven of us — two kids and five adults — would be in the car for the next three hours as we drove from New York City to upstate Connecticut for the weekend.
We decided to get some takeout at a place on the corner of 88th and Broadway. I pulled along the curb and ran in to get everyone's orders.
In no time, Isabelle, my eight year old, came running in the restaurant.
"Daddy! Come quick! The police are giving you a ticket!"
I ran outside.
"Wait, don't write the ticket, I'll move it right away," I offered.
"Too late," she said.
"Come on! I was in there for three minutes. Give me a break."
"You're parked in front of a bus stop." She motioned halfway down the block.
"All the way down there?" I protested.
She said nothing.
"You can't be serious!" I flapped my arms.
"Once I start writing the ticket, I can't stop." She handed me the ticket.
"But you didn't even ask us to move! Why didn't you ask us to move?" I continued to argue as she walked away.
And that's when it hit me: arguing was a waste of my time.
Not just in that situation with that police officer. I'm talking about arguing with anyone, anywhere, any time. It's a guaranteed losing move.
Think about it. You and someone have an opposing view and you argue. You pretend to listen to what she's saying but what you're really doing is thinking about the weakness in her argument so you can disprove it. Or perhaps, if she's debunked a previous point, you're thinking of new counter-arguments. Or, maybe, you've made it personal: it's not just her argument that's the problem. It's her. And everyone who agrees with her.
In some rare cases, you might think the argument has merit. What then? Do you change your mind? Probably not. Instead, you make a mental note that you need to investigate the issue more to uncover the right argument to prove the person wrong.
When I think back to just about every argument I've ever participated in — political arguments, religious arguments, arguments with Eleanor or with my children or my parents or my employees, arguments about the news or about a business idea or about an article or a way of doing something — in the end, each person leaves the argument feeling, in many cases more strongly than before, that he or she was right to begin with.
How likely is it that you will change your position in the middle of fighting for it? Or accept someone else's perspective when they're trying to hit you over the head with it?
Arguing achieves a predictable outcome: it solidifies each person's stance. Which, of course, is the exact opposite of what you're trying to achieve with the argument in the first place. It also wastes time and deteriorates relationships.
There's only one solution: stop arguing.
Resist the temptation to start an argument in the first place. If you feel strongly about something in the moment, that's probably a good sign that you need time to think before trying to communicate it.
If someone tries to draw you into an argument? Don't take the bait. Change the subject or politely let the person know you don't want to engage in a discussion about it.
And if it's too late? If you're in the middle of an argument and realize it's going nowhere? Then you have no choice but to pull out your surprise weapon. The strongest possible defense, guaranteed to overcome any argument:
Listening.
Simply acknowledge the other and what he's saying without any intention of refuting his position. If you're interested, you can ask questions — not to prove him wrong — but to better understand him.
Because listening has the opposite effect of arguing. Arguing closes people down. Listening slows them down. And then it opens them up. When someone feels heard, he relaxes. He feels generous. And he becomes more interested in hearing you.
That's when you have a shot of doing the impossible: changing that person's mind. And maybe your own. Because listening, not arguing, is the best way to shift a perspective.
Then, when you want to leave the conversation, say something like,"Thanks for that perspective." Or "I'll have to think about that," and walk away or change the subject.
I'm not saying you should let someone bully you. This weekend I was in a long line and someone cut in front of me. I told him it wasn't okay and he started yelling, telling me — and the people around me — that he was there all the time, which was clearly not true. I began to argue with him which, of course, proved useless and only escalated the fight.
Eventually a woman in the line simply drew a boundary. She said, "No, it's not okay to simply walk in here when the rest of us are waiting" and she stepped forward and ignored the bully. We all followed her lead and, eventually, he went to the back of the line. Arguments: 0. Boundaries: 1.
When I went online to pay the parking fine, I tried to dispute the ticket. Before arguing my case though, a screen popped up offering me a deal: pay the penalty with a 25% discount, or argue and, if I lose, pay the entire fine. I thought I had a good case so I argued and, a few weeks later, lost the case.
Next time, I'm taking the deal.

More blog posts by Peter Bregman

More on: Communication, Difficult conversations

Expressing Opinions

English Vocabulary

Below are some phrases that you can use to help express opinions. Some of these phrases are more appropriate for written English such as giving your opinion in an essay whereas some can also be used in spoken English.

Personal Point of View

We use these words and phrases to express a personal point of view:

• In my experience…
• As far as I'm concerned…
• Speaking for myself…
• In my opinion…
• Personally, I think…
• I'd say that…
• I'd suggest that…
• I'd like to point out that…
• I believe that…
• What I mean is…

General Point of View

We use these words and phrases to express a point of view that is generally thought by people:

• It is thought that...
• Some people say that...
• It is considered...
• It is generally accepted that...

Agreeing with an opinion

We use these words and phrases to agree with someone else's point of view:

• Of course.
• You're absolutely right.
• Yes, I agree.
• I think so too.
• That's a good point.
• Exactly.
• I don't think so either.
• So do I.
• I'd go along with that.
• That's true.
• Neither do I.
• I agree with you entirely.
• That's just what I was thinking.
• I couldn't agree more.

Disagreeing with an opinion

We use these words and phrases to disagree with someone else's point of view:

• That's different.
• I don't agree with you.
• However…
• That's not entirely true.
• On the contrary…
• I'm sorry to disagree with you, but…
• Yes, but don't you think…
• That's not the same thing at all.
• I'm afraid I have to disagree.
• I'm not so sure about that.
• I must take issue with you on that.
• It's unjustifiable to say that...